The Religion of the Golden Horde Khans and the Foundations of Tolerance

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Abstract

The article analyzes medieval written sources and scholarly interpretations concerning the religious beliefs of the Golden Horde khans. It examines the influence of Tengrism, Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam in the Jochid Ulus. The religious tolerance of Jochi, Batu, and Möngke-Temür, as well as the role of Berke, Öz Beg, and Janibeg in Islamization, is highlighted. New conclusions regarding Öz Beg Khan’s conversion to Islam are proposed, while Toqta Khan’s acceptance of Islam near the end of his life is examined in light of recent research. Over time, Genghis Khan’s principle of equal respect for all religions, embodied in the “Great Yassa,” weakened, and rulers began adopting the beliefs of local populations. This tendency was evident in the Jochid, Chagatai, and Ilkhanid states. Eventually, their rulers embraced Islam and integrated into local cultures. Islamization in the Jochid Ulus occurred in three stages. Berke elevated Islam to the status of a state religion, while mass Islamization began under Öz Beg and Janibeg. The Hanafi school, Maturidi theology, and the Kubrawi and Yasawi traditions became established. Later, the “Hanafi–Maturidi–Yasawi” triad emerged, combining Turkic worldview, Islamic values, religion, and tradition. This legacy continued in the Kazakh Khanate and became the foundation of the unity of the Kazakh spiritual space.